Bill of Rights in Action

World History: The Rise and Fall of the Aztec Empire

World History: The Edicts of Asoka

U.S. Government: Africa’s "Second Independence" and U.S. Policy
 
 

Although he had been trained for war since childhood, the warrior could fight no more. He had been knocked senseless and dragged off the battlefield by an Aztec noble from the capital city of Tenochtitlan. The captured warrior expected to be executed on the spot by Aztec priests. Instead, he was marched back to Tenochtitlan. There, his Aztec captors dressed him in lavish clothing and worshiped him as a god. The captured warrior-god danced and sang in special rituals. He led processions through the city. Priests gave him delicacies to eat and brought him women to satisfy his sexual desires.

After months of preparation, the priests took the warrior-god to the Great Temple. The ultimate honor awaited him at the top of the pyramid stairs. Soon he would join Tonatiuh, the sun god. The warrior’s whole life had prepared him for this glorious moment.

At the top of the pyramid temple, the warrior-god was greeted by the nobleman who had captured him. The sacred ritual was about to begin. Four priests seized the warrior-god’s arms and legs and spread him on a stone altar. He stared up into the infinite blue sky. The chief priest raised his arm high and plunged a knife deep into the warrior-god’s chest. With practiced motions, the priest thrust a hand into the wound, grabbed the warrior-god’s heart and ripped it from his chest. He offered the still-pulsing heart to Tonatiuh, the sun god. Others shoved the lifeless body down the bloody stairs of the Great Temple. At the bottom, more priests cut off the head to display it with hundreds of others on a skull rack.

The nameless warrior described above represented hundreds of thousands of humans who were sacrificed to the gods during the time of the Aztec Empire. The Aztecs believed that the gods had given their blood to create human beings. They believed that in order to maintain the empire, they were obligated to return the blood to the gods. They sacrificed warriors captured in battle and other men, women, and even children to satisfy what they believed was the gods’ voracious blood appetite. But the very beliefs that were intended to maintain the Aztec Empire contributed to its downfall.

The Mexica

The people who would become the Aztecs were latecomers to the Valley of Mexico, the area that now surrounds modern Mexico City. These fierce, Nahuatl-speaking people from the Chichimec culture began to arrive around 1200 A.D. from the north, a place they called Atzlan. Calling themselves the Mexica, these nomads from the north found most of the land already occupied by a sophisticated agricultural-based culture that dwelt in and around well-developed cities. 

******

A Pronunciation Guide to Some Aztec Names 

Tenochtitlan (tay-noch-tee-TLAHN)
Tonatiuh (toh-NAH-ti-uh)
Nahuatl (NAH-wah-tl)
Mexica (meh-SHEE-kah)
Tepanecs (TEH-pah-neks)
Itzcoatl (eets-koh-AT-tl)
Huitzilopochtli (wee-tsee-loh-POHCH-tlee)
Moctezuma I (mohk-teh-ZOO-mah)
Ahuitzotl (ah-weet-ZO-tl) ******

 These city-dwelling agrarians, the Tepanecs, the Acolhuas, and the Culhuas, had already established themselves around Lake Texcoco and competed against one another for dominance in the region. These established groups shunned the Mexica as snake-eating barbarians. After they foolishly sacrificed the daughter of a Culhua king, the Mexica were punished and driven into exile. For years they were forced to wander in the wilderness. According to legend, their warrior god Huitzilopochtli led the Mexica to an island in a swamp. There they saw an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake grasped in its beak. Huitzilopochtli told the Mexica that this would become their homeland.

The Mexica drained the swamp and began to build an urban center that would soon become the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. Meanwhile, the Mexicas, known for being ferocious fighters, worked as hired soldiers for the powerful, well-established Tepanecs. But a new Tepanec king, fearing the military prowess of the Mexicas, initiated a series of attacks. The Mexicas, under their king, Itzcoatl, formed a war alliance with two other city-states and defeated the Tepanecs in 1428. The victory of this city-state trio, called the Triple Alliance, marks the beginning of the Aztec Empire. Today, use of the term Aztec usually refers to the Mexica and the empire they created.

Itzcoatl

The Mexica king Itzcoatl became the first of six Aztec emperors. He introduced revolutionary changes in Aztec life that drove the expansion of the empire for almost a century. Itzcoatl created an Aztec feudal system, much like that of Europe, that concentrated wealth, privilege, and political power in the hands of the emperor, his warriors, and other nobles. Itzcoatl distributed lands from the defeated Tepanecs to his warrior elite. He established a new structure of noble titles and privileges to reward warriors who took captives in battle. To support the new titled classes, Itzcoatl decreed that the common people owed them economic tribute, labor, and military service.

Itzcoatl rewrote history and altered the Aztec religion to justify an expanding empire. The warrior god of the Mexica, Huitzilopochtli, was elevated in importance to represent the sun god, Tonatiuh. The Aztecs became the "chosen people of the sun." Itzcoatl gave them the responsibility of keeping the gods and the world alive with a constant supply of human blood. The Aztecs and earlier peoples in Mexico had performed human sacrifices as part of their religion for many years, but Itzcoatl demanded much larger numbers of captive warriors to satisfy the blood thirst of Tonatiuh and other gods.

How the Empire Worked

With his feudal and religious changes in place, Itzcoatl spent the rest of his life engaged in conquering other Aztec city-states in the Valley of Mexico. The Aztecs had no standing army. Instead, all Triple-Alliance males were pressed into service whenever a war began. Noble warriors gained status and wealth based on how many captives they took in battle. 

Aztecs fought to kill, but more importantly, they fought to take captives. They believed that, if they died in battle, their souls would join the gods. Warriors usually fought one-on-one with spears and wooden swords embedded with deadly rows of sharpened obsidian (a form of volcanic glass). 

When he was victorious, Itzcoatl—and the emperors who followed him—would dictate an amount of tribute to be collected from the defeated city-state and install a trustworthy local noble as its new king. Under this system of indirect rule, life usually continued unchanged in a conquered city-state—as long as tribute flowed to the Aztec capital. Because the emperor controlled the Aztec kingdom so loosely, defeated city-states frequently revolted and had to be reconquered.

Most of the revolts against the empire took place because of resentment caused by the burden of the tribute system. Conquered city-states near Tenochtitlan were usually called upon to feed the Aztec capital’s growing class of nobles. Other common tribute items included warrior’s uniforms, animal skins, building materials, pottery, and firewood. The Aztecs also required conquered states to supply gold and copper, feathers, incense, paper, and cocoa beans, which were used as money. In addition, the Aztec emperor would demand laborers from the conquered city-states to build temples, aqueducts, and other public projects.

Expansion and Collapse of the Empire

After Itzcoatl’s death in 1440, a group of Mexica royal advisers chose Moctezuma I to become the next Aztec leader. A nephew and close ally of the former ruler, Moctezuma I carried on Itzcoatl’s warlike policies. 

Moctezuma I strengthened the tribute system and began construction of the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan. He also issued a new legal code that emphasized the great differences between the nobility and the commoners. In addition, he organized a system of compulsory schools for all Mexica boys and girls. These schools helped indoctrinate them into the beliefs and rituals of the Aztec religion. Depending on their class, schooling prepared boys to become priests, government office holders, merchants, farmers, and craftsmen. All boys were trained to be warriors. Girls learned song, dance, and the skills necessary to become the mothers of Aztec warriors. 

Toward the end of his reign, Moctezuma I had achieved what amounted to a Pax Azteca (Aztec Peace) in the Valley of Mexico. Because he and Itzcoatl had conquered so many city-states in the area, warfare among these lesser states ended. This enabled a widespread trade and market system to flourish. Aztec pochteca, or merchants, traded with people as far away as Central America, exchanging textiles, obsidian tools, medicinal herbs and dyes for unfinished goods that could be sold to Aztec artisans. This trade greatly increased the standard of living, even among the commoners. 

The Aztec Empire reached its peak in size and power under Ahuitzotl, the fifth emperor. He also presided over the completion of the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan.

The Great Temple consisted of a massive pyramid topped by two temples: one for Huitzilopochtli, the warrior god and representation of the sun, and the other for Tlaloc, the god of rain, water, and fertility. Twin staircases went up one side of the pyramid to each temple where human sacrifices were performed. The Aztecs sacrificed more than 10,000 individuals in a dedication ceremony that lasted four days. The Great Temple was completed in 1487, five years before Columbus set out on his voyage of discovery.

By the time of Ahuitzotl, Aztec human sacrifices had taken on an additional political purpose. Kings and diplomats from the conquered city-states and the common people of Tenochtitlan were all forced to witness the gruesome rituals. These awesome demonstrations of Aztec power prevented many from challenging the elite class that ruled an empire of 3 million people.

When Moctezuma II, the sixth and last Aztec ruler, became emperor in 1502, the empire was already beginning to weaken. Moctezuma II spent much of his time attempting to reconquer city-states that had revolted against demands from the capital. The Mexica nobility increasingly denied any decision-making powers to Aztec commoners. This caused the commoners, who supported the nobility with payments of tribute and military service, to lose faith in their rulers.

The Aztecs had accomplished a great deal in a relatively short time. In less than a century, they built a city, extended existing trade routes, and devised an elaborate market system. They fed, clothed, housed, and educated millions of citizens. But finally, the empire simply began to bleed to death. Aztec wars and sacrifices to the gods had reduced the numbers of farmers, craftsmen, and other producers necessary to keep the empire thriving.

When Spaniard Hernando Cortes reached Tenochtitlan in 1519, he was amazed to find an island-city of 200,000 people with stone temples, royal palaces, and great houses all dwarfed by the sacred pyramid. The capital of the Aztec Empire was five times the size of London at that time. Yet, this impressive Mexica city only briefly hid the weaknesses of the empire from the Spanish. Cortes soon discovered that he could enlist the aid of other resentful Aztec city-states to defeat the "people of the sun." 

It took a year of deal-making, intrigue, and warfare for Cortes to assemble an army large enough to assault the Aztec capital. In 1521, Cortes and his allied forces surrounded the island city. "It was useless to tell [the Aztecs]," Cortes wrote, "that we would not raise the siege. . . that there was nowhere whence they could procure maize, meat, fruit, water. . . . The more we repeated this, the less faintheartedness they showed."

For 85 days, the Aztec warriors fought the Spaniards and their Indian allies through the streets and canals of Tenochtitlan. Cortes estimated that the Aztecs lost over 100,000 soldiers. The fighting ended only after the last defenders were cut down. Today, the streets and buildings of Mexico City have engulfed the former capital of the Aztec empire.

For Discussion and Writing

1. How did "blood and tribute" drive the expansion of the Aztec Empire?

2. In what ways did Itzcoatl set the course for expanding the Aztec Empire? 

3. What do you think was the most important reason for the collapse of the Aztec Empire? Why?

For Further Reading

Conrad, Geoffrey W. and Arthur A. Demarest. Religion and the Empire, The Dynamics of Aztec and Inca Expansionism. London: Cambridge University Press, 1984.

Smith, Michael E. The Aztecs. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishers, 1996.
 
 
 

ACTIVITY: An Advisor Speaks to the Emperor

Imagine that you are an advisor to Moctezuma II on the eve of the Spanish conquest. Write a letter to the emperor describing 1) the problems the Aztec Empire is facing, 2) the consequences of these problems, and 3) what should be done about them.
 

The rulers of ancient empires typically viewed themselves as all-powerful conquerors who were justified in using violence and fear to force people to submit to their will. Darius the Great of Persia wrote of himself this way: "I am Darius the Great King, King of Kings, King of countries containing all kinds of men, King in the great Earth far and wide. . . ." 

But about 200 years after Darius died, a type of monarch the world had never seen before appeared in India. King Asoka (also known as "Ashoka") abandoned violence and fear and adopted reason and persuasion to rule his empire. We know this because of the large number of stone inscriptions that he left behind. Unlike the boastful Darius, Asoka tried to convince his subjects and people everywhere to treat one another with respect and compassion. While he was an absolute ruler like Darius, Asoka promoted ideas that would eventually become the foundation for modern societies like our own.

The Mauryan Empire

Alexander the Great, a Greek general from Macedonia, was one of the greatest conquerors of all time. By 297 B.C., Alexander and his huge army of foot soldiers, cavalry, and war elephants had conquered much of what is now India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. King Asoka’s warlike grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, may have met Alexander the Great when the Greek conqueror forced his way into Northern India. Alexander’s conquests may have inspired Asoka’s grandfather. Twenty-four years after taking the throne, Chandragupta had unified the many different cultures, ethnic groups, languages, and religions of Northern and Central India. Chandragupta’s kingdom became known as the Mauryan Empire.

After ruling for 24 years, Chandragupta became a Jainist. Jainism is a highly puritanical offshoot of Hinduism. Chandragupta abdicated the throne. He gave up all his possessions and wandered his empire until he died of slow starvation, a traditional way for Jainists to die. 

King Chandragupta’s son, Bindusara ("Destroyer of Foes"), inherited his father’s throne. Bindusara continued his father’s military campaigns and further expanded the Mauryan Empire. Bindusara had a number of sons, including Asoka. Bindusara appointed Prince Asoka as the governor of an important province. Asoka must have shown promise as a ruler. Bindusara apparently asked the young prince to put down disorders in another province governed by Asoka’s older bother.

When Bindusara died, a period of turmoil followed. Evidently, Asoka and his brothers fought among themselves for title to the throne. With the support of his father’s chief government ministers, Asoka took control of the empire. Four years later, in 269 B.C., Asoka was officially crowned king. He was about 35 years old.

Asoka’s empire was divided into four provinces that were, in turn, subdivided into smaller regions. Government officials were appointed to maintain strict control and to collect tribute and taxes from each of these regions.

A special class of senior officials, called mahamattas, were responsible to the king for keeping the villages, regions, and provinces running efficiently. The king gave independent authority to judicial mahamattas. These judges presided over civil and criminal cases and had the power to inflict fines, lashings, and capital punishment for severe offenses. All officials were chosen for their loyalty and were usually appointed by the king. 

Although Asoka came to the Mauryan throne at a time of peace and economic prosperity, the great diversity of peoples within the empire threatened disunity. Asoka needed a common code of behavior to bind everyone together. 

At the time of Asoka’s coronation, Hinduism had been India’s dominant religion for centuries. Hindus believe that all living creatures are reborn many times. They also believe that society is divided into strictly defined social classes, called castes. An individual’s caste is determined by his or her birthplace, family, and occupation, and although many Hindus value the caste system for the cultural identify it gives them, the quality of life varies greatly from caste to caste. Thousands of castes divide Hindu society. The uppermost castes guarantee wealth, power, and privilege to nobles, warriors, and the rich, while members of the lowest caste, called untouchables, are condemned to hold the dirtiest jobs and have virtually no civil rights or opportunities for advancement. Today, education, legislation, intermarriage, and modern life are eroding the dominance of the caste system in India, but for thousands of years, the Hindu religion strictly forbade social interaction between castes. 

The Enlightened One

Although the Hindu religion was dominant in India during Asoka’s reign, a relatively new religion had begun to challenge the ancient Hindu beliefs. Siddhartha Gautama, called the Buddha ("Enlightened One"), lived in India two centuries earlier. Buddha taught that nonviolence, moderation in life, and dedication to the care of others led to enlightenment. He also questioned the need for the elaborate rituals in Hinduism and broke the caste rules by treating all people as equals. Siddhartha Gautama’s followers were called Buddhists. After becoming a king, Asoka became a Buddhist.

Asoka’s conversion to Buddhism may have influenced the way he chose to rule his kingdom. In the Mauryan Empire, the king’s word was law. Asoka inherited absolute power. But Asoka chose to adopt a more paternalistic, or fatherly role as ruler. "All men are my children," he wrote. Unlike many ancient rulers who adopted a new religion, Asoka did not establish Buddhism as a state religion or insist that his subjects convert to it.

Dhamma

During the ninth year of his reign, Asoka decided to follow in the path of his father and grandfather and go to war. He marched on Kalinga. The kingdom of Kalinga, located on the east coast of India, controlled major land and sea trade routes to the south. It was also one of the few regions in India that had never been conquered by the Mauryans. 

Asoka apparently waged a war of annihilation on Kalinga. His warriors killed about 100,000 Kalingan soldiers in battles, and thousands of civilians suffered and died when the conquerors drove another 150,000 Kalingans from their homes. 

Within several months of his victory, however, King Asoka made an amazing public declaration. He expressed sorrow and remorse for the slaughter and suffering that he had caused during his assault on Kalinga. He renounced wars of conquest. Although he retained his army, Asoka never went to war again.

What caused this dramatic turn in Asoka’s life? During this period he was becoming a Buddhist, and the teachings of "The Enlightened One" must have had a profound effect on him. But there were other influences. Hindu, Jainist, and other religious thinkers, foreign visitors to the Mauryan capital, and personal remorse all seemed to contribute to Asoka’s change of heart. King Asoka began to forge a set of ethics based on his new beliefs; he called this set of ethics dhamma. 

To Asoka, dhamma was a way for people to treat each other and animals with respect. Dhamma was related to dharma, which is the fundamental law that Hindus, Buddhists, and Jainists believe applies to all beings. Dhamma included such concepts as respect and compassion for others, fair treatment of all, benevolence, non-violence, religious toleration, helping the unfortunate, and the humane treatment of animals. "It is having few faults and many good deeds," Asoka wrote. 

The Edicts of Asoka

Asoka went beyond simply preaching abstract ideas. He attempted to give practical guidance to his subjects in edicts that he ordered inscribed on rocks and stone pillars for all to see. Called the Rock and Pillar Edicts, these stone documents were written in the language of the common people. By making the edicts accessible to everyone, Asoka tried to bind together the diverse peoples of his empire while he gave them a uniquely practical and compassionate code of ethics to live by.

Referring to himself only by the royal title "Beloved of the Gods,"Asoka addressed most of his edicts to the people of the empire. One of the edicts expressed Asoka’s remorse for the suffering he had caused the people of Kalinga:

On conquering Kalinga the Beloved of the Gods felt remorse, for when an independent country is conquered, the slaughter, death, and deportation of the people is extremely grievous to the Beloved of the Gods and weighs heavily on his mind. What is even more deplorable to the Beloved of the Gods is that those who dwell there . . . all suffer violence, murder, and separation from their loved ones. Even those who are fortunate to have escaped . . . suffer from the misfortunes of their friends, acquaintances, colleagues, and relatives. This participation of all men in suffering weighs heavily on the mind of the Beloved of the Gods.

In two special edicts, he called upon his mahamattas in Kalinga to administer justice impartially and to gain the affection of the people, whom he called "my children." Most of the other edicts dealt with the welfare and happiness of all people based on Asoka’s conception of dhamma. 

The following section summarizes a number of Asoka’s edicts. The passages in quotations are translations of Asoka’s own words.

"Thus speaks the Beloved of the Gods. . ."

Prohibitions

—No sacrifice of animals for religious rituals will be
    permitted in the capital.

—The slaughter and mutilation of specific animals and
    birds by anyone is forbidden.

—The king will no longer go on royal hunts.

—The king renounces victory by wars of conquest. The
    Beloved of the Gods considers victory by dhamma to be
    the foremost victory.

Public Works

—Hospitals for people and animals will be built.

—Gardens for growing medicinal plants will be established.

—Wells, trees, and rest houses will be put along roads for
    the comfort of travelers and animals.

Human Relations

—People should obey their parents and religious elders.

—People should not mistreat their servants and slaves.

—People should be generous to religious persons, relatives,
    and friends.

Religion

—Religious sects "may dwell in all places."

—People should not attack the religious beliefs of others
    "so that men may hear one another’s principles."

Welfare of the People

—My officials will attend to the welfare of the aged, the
    poor, and prisoners.

—My officials who are reporting the public’s business will
    have immediate access to me at all times and places.

—My officials will make sure that the government of the
    empire is run efficiently for the welfare and happiness
    of the people.

Justice

—Judges will be independent and will exercise uniformity
    in procedure and punishment.

—Wrongdoers should be forgiven as much as possible.

—Capital punishment should be used with restraint and the
    condemned should have three days to appeal their sentence.

— "It is good not to kill living beings."

In his last edict, probably inscribed in 242 B.C., Asoka wrote: "The advancement of dhamma amongst men has been achieved through two means, laws and persuasion. But of these two, laws have been less effective and persuasion more so." Specially trained officials, called dhamma-mahamattas toured the empire regularly to assess the views of the people and to instruct them in the meaning of dhamma. King Asoka often toured with his dhamma-mahamattas. He also dispatched missionaries to foreign countries, "for I consider that I must promote the welfare of the whole world."

We know little about how thoroughly Asoka’s edicts were accepted by his people. In his final inscriptions, titled "The Beloved of the Gods,"Asoka seemed content that he had been successful. Asoka died in 232 B.C. after a reign of nearly 40 years. Apparently, Asoka’s vision for a more humane world died with him. His successors ruled poorly, and the Mauryan Empire disintegrated and finally vanished in a little more than 50 years. 

Asoka was largely forgotten until his rock and pillar inscriptions, which still exist today, were translated over 2,000 years later. While Asoka failed to change his world, most of his ideas proved to be timeless.

For Discussion and Writing

1. How were Asoka and Darius the Great different kinds of rulers? How were they similar?

2. How would you describe a person who lived his or her life according to dhamma?

3. What do you think was the single most important idea in Asoka’s edicts? Why? Do you think Asoka overlooked any important categories in his edicts?

For Further Reading

Nikam, N. A. and Richard McKeon, eds. The Edicts of Asoka. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965.

Thapar, Romila. Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963.
 
 
 

ACTIVITY: What Is Dhamma Today?

1. Form small groups. Every group will write six of their own edicts, one for each of the six categories of Asoka’s Edicts listed in the article. The edicts should concern issues of today relating to the categories, but must also conform to the principles of dhamma as explained by Asoka over 2,000 years ago.

2. The groups should inscribe their edicts on butcher paper and post them around the classroom.

3. The members of each group should then explain why their six edicts are an expression of dhamma today.
 

In the spring of 1998, President Clinton visited six African countries. His tour included a visit to the "House of Slaves" on an island in the harbor of Dakar, Senegal. A short tunnel runs under the structure, ending with a doorway opening out to the Atlantic Ocean. Tens of thousands of Africans passed through this portal, now called the "Door of No Return," on their way to slavery in America.

In Africa, Clinton apologized for slavery. "We were wrong in that," he said. He apologized for the support Washington gave dictators in the name of Cold War anti-communism. He apologized for the failure of the "international community" to respond quickly enough to the cries of genocide in Rwanda. "All over the world," Clinton said, "there were people like me sitting in offices, day after day after day, who did not fully appreciate the depth and the speed with which you were being engulfed in this unimaginable terror." 

The past tragedy of slavery connects the United States and Africa. But does the United States have any important interests in Africa today? As African nations try to progress, what should our role in that continent be?

"Second Independence"

Africa is a vast continent containing more countries than any other continent in the world. It’s the homeland of hundreds of ethnic groups with different cultural traditions, languages, and religions. European nations such as Great Britain and France colonized much of Africa, starting in the 1700s. In the 1880s, as economic and political rivalry increased in Europe, nations like Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, and Italy raced each other to lay claim to huge African territories rich in minerals, petroleum, rubber, coffee, and other resources. Most African rulers yielded to the ambitions and military power of the Europeans. Others fought wars of resistance, but by 1914, Europeans ruled more than 90 percent of Africa’s territories and more than 80 percent of its people.

The Europeans drew arbitrary boundary lines separating their colonial possessions to suit their own purposes while ignoring the cultural differences among Africa’s many distinct ethnic groups. As a result, some groups found themselves split up into two or more colonies while others were forced to live in the same colony with people they disliked. These boundary lines would create a great deal of trouble in the future for the people of new African nations like Rwanda, Burundi, and Somalia.

European domination of Africa continued until after World War II, when many of the European colonial powers had been weakened by the ravages of global warfare. The demand for independence became a mass African movement. At this point, the European powers in Africa had to choose between granting independence to their colonies or fighting expensive colonial wars. Most chose to relinquish control of their former colonies. By the 1980s, all of Africa was independent except for South African-controlled Namibia. South Africa, although under minority white rule until 1994, had been politically independent since it had withdrawn from the British Commonwealth of Nations in 1961. 

Many modern African nations gained independence during the late 1950s and 1960s, a period of intense Cold War hostility between the United States and the Soviet Union. In an attempt to extend their spheres of influence, the two Cold War adversaries offered large grants of economic and military aid to more than 40 African nations who were emerging from European colonial rule. 

Drawing heavily on the foreign aid offered by the Soviet Union and the United States and their allies, many of the new African nations tried to educate their people and to establish self-sufficient economies. However, most failed to effectively develop their economies or political systems. Instead, they often turned to a government-run economic system that was frequently based on the old European colonial models and that permitted an elite few to get rich while the majority of people sank deeper into poverty. More often than not, the new African governments fell into the hands of military strongmen, who overthrew one another to gain power for themselves. 

When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 and the Cold War ended, the economic and military aid that many African nations had come to depend upon started to disappear. Africans soon realized that they would have to adjust to a global economy that was becoming increasingly competitive. 

During the last few years, some 35 African countries have loosened government control of their economies and moved toward free-market, capitalist economies. At the same time, about 20 of these nations have held multi-party elections. New leaders have emerged in countries like Uganda, challenging the old pattern of military rule. Africans call these attempts to establish democracy and economic reform their "second independence." In order to achieve this second independence, they must erase the legacy of European colonialism, the influences of the Cold War, and the more recent misrule by Africans themselves.

Africa south of the Sahara Desert is the poorest region on Earth. Unemployment is high and workers with jobs earn an average wage of only $450 a year. Governments are burdened with foreign debt. Ancient hatreds pit ethnic groups against one another, sometimes resulting in mass bloodshed bordering on genocide. In Rwanda, 500,000 people were slaughtered in 1994. Moreover, most African countries still do not have democratically elected governments that respect human rights.

Despite their problems, the nations of Africa hold great promise for the future. Resources such as oil, water power, and minerals have never been fully developed for the benefit of the people. With irrigation, millions of acres of land could be cultivated for both food and export crops like coffee and cocoa. Under new reforms and better leadership, the economic growth rate in Africa has doubled since 1990. Also, Africa’s total population of 750 million people is an inviting market for producing and trading nations like the United States. 

Uganda: Making Progress

Located in central Africa and bordering part of Lake Victoria, Uganda is one of the growing number of African countries trying to achieve a "second independence."

Uganda briefly became a republic after securing independence from Great Britain in 1962. But in 1971, General Idi Amin seized power and established one of Africa’s most brutal regimes. After systematically murdering 300,000 of his opponents, Amin was named "president for life" in 1976. Ugandan rebels and forces from neighboring Tanzania finally overthrew Idi Amin in 1979. The country continued to suffer, however, under a series of incompetent military rulers. Fighting among Uganda’s different ethnic groups also plunged the country deeper into violence and poverty.

In 1986, a resistance movement seized control of the national capital and installed Yoweri Museveni as president. Unlike previous military strongmen, Museveni acted to defuse ethnic hostility in Uganda. He successfully integrated soldiers from Uganda’s diverse ethnic groups into one army. Museveni reinstated political parties but banned any party that represented just one ethnic group. In addition, candidates for political office were required to run on their personal qualifications rather than as the representatives of a political party. A new constitution was approved by Ugandan voters in 1995. Musveni won a 1996 election that international observers judged to be free and fair. Multi-party elections are scheduled to start in the year 2000.

Uganda still has a long way to go before achieving a real democracy. Despite efforts to build Uganda into a showcase of political and economic reform, Museveni’s government is still battling two rebel factions in Uganda’s remote northern regions. The rebels claim that their mission is to force Museveni to accept multi-party democracy. Museveni’s government refuses to negotiate with the rebels. "You cannot sit down with a highway robber to discuss the governance of the state," explained one of Museveni’s statesmen.

The 12-year civil war has taken its toll. More than 100,000 people have died, many of them women and children. The northern infrastructure has collapsed, agriculture has come to a standstill, and Uganda is still burdened by foreign debt amounting to more than $2 billion. 

Despite its problems, Uganda is making progress. During his 1998 visit, President Clinton stressed that Uganda has come a long way and deserves to be considered as a legitimate trading power. Starting in 1991, Uganda slowly began to shift some government businesses over to privately-owned enterprises. Uganda shows promise as a trading partner with resources in cotton, coffee, and tea, copper mining, a textile industry, and one of the largest fresh water fisheries in the world. Moreover, the per capita income of Ugandan workers has grown to $900 per year, twice that of African workers overall. Further improvement of Uganda’s worker income could increase the market for trade goods from countries like the United States.

Somalia: Frustrated Intervention 

Somalia faces Saudi Arabia across the narrow waters of the Gulf of Aden, the gateway to the Red Sea. Ancestors of present-day Somalis were converted to Islam by Arabs who settled along the coastline before the 1300s. Like many African nations, Somalia underwent a period of European colonization during the 19th century. France, Great Britain, and Italy all occupied Somalia and struggled for dominance in the region from the 1860s through World War II. In 1960, Somalia declared itself a democratic republic.

In 1969, Somalia’s president was assassinated in a military coup. The army and police suspended the constitution, the cabinet, and the national assembly. It abolished all political parties while army officers replaced civilian district officials. By the early 1990s, Somalis had ousted Mohamed Siad Barre, a dictator who had coaxed arms and money from Cold War superpowers. Immediately after Barre was deposed, the rebels who ousted him broke into hostile factions. 

These factions reflected ancient rivalries between nomadic herders and farmers. Organized along clan lines, the conflict between herders and farmers was sharpened by blood ties. The clans tolerated no interaction that might break down the barriers between herder and farmer. Over the centuries these exclusive, family-based clans gradually defined every aspect of Somali life. Political power, occupations, the boundaries of neighborhoods were all determined along clan lines. In the early 1990s, fueled by a drought and clan rivalries, Somalia fell victim to famine and civil war. 

In December 1992, American troops arrived in Somalia to strengthen a small contingent of United Nations forces. Their objective was to administer relief efforts and establish stability in a country torn apart by starvation, disease, and warring clans. American strength, always part of a United Nations contingent, built to 26,000 troops. 

The U.S.–U.N. intervention in Somalia was considered by many to be a disaster. Thirty American troops and more than 100 U.N. personnel were killed in combat with heavily armed clans. The mission to provide health care and feed the victims of famine and war was frustrated by secrecy, hoarding, and sabotage. Critics accused the United States of using humanitarian motives to cover attempts at controlling Somali oil resources and smothering the spread of Islamic fundamentalism. In 1995, after more than two years of occupation, President Clinton ordered U.S. troops to withdraw from Somalia. The rest of the United Nations contingent followed suit soon after.

Currently, the country is still divided among rival warlords and remains without a central government. "Somalia is seen as a failed operation," said a U.N. commissioner for human rights. "I don’t know if the international community is willing to invest more." 

Others insist that the Somalia missions should not be so coldly dismissed. United Nations and U.S. intervention saved hundreds of thousands from starvation and offered health care and assistance to thousands more displaced by years of civil war.

Trade Not Aid

During his tour of Africa in March 1998, President Clinton spoke of a new relationship with countries like Uganda and Somalia that are striving for their "second independence." Clinton called for legislation that would encourage increased investment and improve trade relations with those African nations making progress in free-market and democratic reforms.

The Clinton administration submitted a trade bill to Congress called the Africa Growth and Opportunity Act. Designed to spur economic development in Africa, the proposed legislation would lower U.S. tariffs and quotas on textiles and other trade products from African nations that can demonstrate that they are moving toward democracy and developing a free market economy. 

The Africa trade bill also requires African nations to drop their restrictions on trade with the United States. Currently, the United States supplies only 7 percent of the goods and services that Africans purchase. African exports to the United States—mostly oil—account for just 2 percent of all U.S. imports. The Africa trade bill would attempt to increase these figures.

This trade bill contains other objectives. For example, it would replace the previous emphasis on direct financial aid and loans. This provision drew criticism from Nelson Mandela, South Africa’s president. Mandela told President Clinton on his recent trip to Africa that many African nations are not yet ready to stand alone in the world market. They still need economic aid and debt relief in order to reach a position where they can begin to develop their economies.

U.S. companies and unions also fear that the bill’s lowered tariffs would allow a flow of cheap textile imports into the United States. These low-priced imports might take away jobs and income from the American textile industry. Others claim that a bill that allowed increased U.S. exports to African countries would create jobs in the United States.

Speaking before a group of Ugandan school children, President Clinton declared that "perhaps the worst sin America ever committed about Africa was the sin of neglect and ignorance."

While Africa is struggling with its second independence, developed industrial nations like the United States are grappling with policies that might help reverse the trends caused by exploitation and neglect visited upon Africa during the previous centuries. 

For Discussion and Writing

1. What is the difference between Africa’s independence from colonialism 40 years ago and the "second independence" many African nations are trying to achieve today?

2. How did the Cold War cause many African nations to become dependent on foreign aid and loans?

3. Do you think Congress should pass the Africa Growth and Opportunity Act? Why or why not?

For Further Reading

"Africa." Current History May 1998.

McGeary, Johanna and Marguerite Michaels. "Africa Rising." Time 30 Mar. 1998: 34-46.
 
 
 

ACTIVITY: What Should Our Role in Africa Be?

Form small groups, each of which will become a committee to advise the president on what the U.S. role in Africa should be. Below are listed four policies on Africa for the committees to consider. Each committee may choose one or any combination of these policies as well as other ideas to recommend to the president. After discussing the four policies and deciding on a recommendation, each committee will report its conclusions and reasoning. 

1. The United States does not have sufficient interests to justify a major involvement or interference in the affairs of African nations. 

2. The United States should adopt a "trade not aid" policy in which we reduce tariffs and quotas on African trade goods when African countries make progress in becoming more democratic and moving toward free-market economies.

3. The United States has a human rights obligation to join with other nations to suppress ethnic bloodshed and brutal dictators in Africa.

4. The United States should grant economic aid and forgive loan debts to help African countries overcome their poverty.